Single-Photon Imaging

by Seitz, Peter; Theuwissen, Albert J. P.

Edition: 1st

ISBN13: 9783642184420

ISBN10: 3642184421

Format: Hardcover

Pub. Date: 2011-08-04

Publisher(s): Springer Verlag

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Summary

The acquisition and interpretation of images is a central capability in almost all scientific and technological domains. In particular, the acquisition of electromagnetic radiation, in the form of visible light, UV, infrared, X-ray, etc. is of enormous practical importance. The ultimate sensitivity in electronic imaging is the detection of individual photons. With this book, the first comprehensive review of all aspects of single-photon electronic imaging has been created. Topics include theoretical basics, semiconductor fabrication, single-photon detection principles, imager design and applications of different spectral domains. Today, the solid-state fabrication capabilities for several types of image sensors has advanced to a point, where uncoooled single-photon electronic imaging will soon become a consumer product. This book is giving a specialist#xC2;#xB4;s view from different domains to the forthcoming #xE2;#xAC;Ssingle-photon imaging#xE2;#xAC; revolution. The various aspects of single-photon imaging are treated by internationally renowned, leading scientists and technologists who have all pioneered their respective fields.

Fundamentals of Noise in Optoelectronics	p. 1
Introduction	p. 1
Quantization of Electromagnetic Radiation, Electrical Charge, and Energy States in Bound Systems	p. 2
Basic Properties of the Poisson Distribution	p. 3
Interaction of Radiation and Matter	p. 5
Noise Properties of Light Sources	p. 6
Coherent Light (Single-Mode Lasers)	p. 6
Thermal (Incandescent) Light Sources	p. 6
Partially Coherent Light (Discharge Lamps)	p. 7
Light Emitting Diodes	p. 8
The Meaning of "Single-Photon Imaging"	p. 9
Energy Band Model of Solid State Matter	p. 11
Detection of Electromagnetic Radiation with Semiconductors	p. 12
Quantum Efficiency and Band Structure	p. 12
Thermal Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Carrier Concentrations	p. 13
Dark Current	p. 14
Avalanche Effect and Excess Noise Factor	p. 15
Electronic Detection of Charge	p. 16
Basic Components of Electronics and their Noise Properties	p. 17
Basic Circuits for Electronic Charge Detection	p. 20
Conclusions for Single-Electron Charge Detection	p. 21
Summary: Physical Limits of the Detection of Light	p. 23
Sensitive Wavelength Range	p. 23
Dark Current and Quantum Efficiency	p. 24
Electronic Charge Detection	p. 24
References	p. 25
Image Sensor Technology	p. 27
Program and a Brief History of Solid-State Image Sensors	p. 27
Anatomy of an Image Sensor	p. 28
Operation	p. 33
Image Sensor Devices	p. 35
Image Sensor Process Technology	p. 39
Outlook for a Single Photon Process Technology	p. 46
References	p. 47
Hybrid Avalanche Photodiode Array Imaging	p. 49
Introduction	p. 49
Principle of Hybrid APD Operation	p. 50
Single-pixel Large Format Hybrid APD	p. 51
Device Description	p. 51
Performance	p. 53
Application	p. 55
Multipixel Hybrid APD Array	p. 56
Device Description	p. 56
Performance	p. 60
Application	p. 61
Conclusions and Remaining Issues	p. 62
References	p. 52
Electron Bombarded Semiconductor Image Sensors	p. 63
Introduction	p. 53
Electron Bombarded Semiconductor Gain Process	p. 65
Hybrid Photomultiplier EBS Image Sensors	p. 66
Hybrid Photomultiplier Gain and Noise Analysis	p. 66
Hybrid Photomultiplier Time Response	p. 67
Hybrid Photomultiplier Imagers	p. 67
EBCCD and EBCMOS EBS Image Sensors	p. 69
References	p. 71
Single-Photon Imaging Using Electron Multiplication in Vacuum	p. 73
Introduction	p. 73
The Photocathode	p. 75
The Working Principle of Photocathodes	p. 75
Multialkali Photocathodes	p. 77
III-V Photocathodes	p. 79
Image Intensifiers	p. 80
Working Principle	p. 80
Applications	p. 82
The Components of an Image Intensifier	p. 83
Performance Characteristics	p. 87
Special Image Intensifiers	p. 94
Photomultiplier Tube	p. 95
Working Principle	p. 95
Applications	p. 95
The Components of a PMT	p. 97
Performance Characteristics	p. 99
Conclusions and Outlook	p. 102
References	p. 102
Electron-Multiplying Charge Coupled Devices - EMCCDs	p. 103
Introduction	p. 103
Harnessing Impact Ionisation for Ultra Sensitive CCD Imaging	p. 104
The Electron Multiplying CCD Concept	p. 104
Output Amplifier Noise	p. 104
The Use of Multiplication Gain	p. 106
Noise and Signal-to-Noise Ratio	p. 109
Output Signal Distributions	p. 110
Photon Counting with the EMCCD	p. 112
Background Signal Generation	p. 114
Dark Signal	p. 114
Statistics of Dark Signal Generation	p. 117
Spurious Charge Generation	p. 117
Improving the Efficiency of Signal Generation	p. 118
Concluding Comments	p. 119
References	p. 120
Monolithic Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes: SPADs	p. 123
A Brief Historical Perspective	p. 123
Fundamental Mechanisms	p. 124
SPAD Structure and Operation	p. 124
Idle State and Avalanche Buildup	p. 126
Quench, Spread, and Recharge	p. 129
Example Waveforms	p. 131
Pulse-Shaping	p. 134
Uncorrelated Noise: Dark Counts	p. 135
Correlated Noise: Afterpulsing and Other Time Uncertainties	p. 136
Sensitivity: Photon Detection Probability	p. 138
Wavelength Discrimination	p. 141
Fabricating Monolithic SPADs	p. 141
Vertical Versus Planar SPADs	p. 141
Implementation in Planar Processes	p. 142
SPAD Nonidealities	p. 146
SPAD Array Nonidealities	p. 146
Architecting SPAD Arrays	p. 148
Basic Architectures	p. 148
On-Chip Architecture	p. 149
In-Column Architecture	p. 150
In-Pixel Architecture	p. 151
Trends in Monolithic Array Designs	p. 153
Conclusions	p. 154
References	p. 154
Single Photon CMOS Imaging Through Noise Minimization	p. 159
Introduction	p. 159
Theory	p. 161
QE and MTF	p. 161
Photo-carrier Detection Probability	p. 167
Additive Temporal Noise Systems	p. 168
Uncorrelated Temporal Noise Sources	p. 170
Correlated Temporal Noise Sources	p. 174
Amplification and Bandwidth Control	p. 175
Amplification	p. 175
Bandwidth Control	p. 179
Architectures	p. 181
4T Pixel with Pinned Photodiode Column Level Amplification and CDS	p. 181
4T CTIA Pixel with Pinned Photo Diode Column Level Amplification and CDS	p. 184
Architecture Comparison	p. 188
Low-Noise CMOS Image Sensor Optimization	p. 189
Electrical	p. 189
Optical	p. 192
Conclusion	p. 193
References	p. 194
Architectures for Low-noise CMOS Electronic Imaging	p. 197
Introduction	p. 197
Signal Readout Architectures	p. 198
Correlated Samplings and their Noise Responses	p. 201
Correlated Double Sampling and Correlated Multiple Sampling	p. 201
Response of CDS and CMS to Thermal and 1/f Noises	p. 203
Noise in Active-pixel CMOS Image Sensors Using Column CMS Circuits	p. 207
Possibility of Single Photon Detection	p. 211
Single Photon Detection Using Quantization	p. 211
Condition for Single Photon Detection	p. 214
References	p. 216
Low-Noise Electronic Imaging with Double-Gate FETs and Charge-Modulation Devices	p. 219
Introduction	p. 219
Double-Gate FET Charge Detector	p. 220
Floating Well Type	p. 220
Floating Surface Type	p. 226
CCD Image Sensor with Double-Gate FET Charge Detector	p. 233
Sensor Construction	p. 233
Feedback Charge Detector	p. 234
Evaluation	p. 236
Signal Processing	p. 237
Charge-Modulation Image Pixel Application	p. 239
Pixel Construction	p. 242
Operation	p. 243
Simulation	p. 245
Results	p. 245
Applications of Area Sensor	p. 246
Conclusions	p. 248
References	p. 248
Energy-Sensitive Single-Photon X-ray and Particle Imaging	p. 249
Introduction	p. 249
Applications	p. 250
Basic Topology	p. 251
Particle Sensing Devices	p. 251
Direct Conversion Sensing Devices	p. 252
Scintillators Coupled to Sensing Devices for Visible Light	p. 253
Asynchronous Charge Pulse Detecting Circuits	p. 254
Charge Sensitive Amplifier	p. 255
Charge Sensitive Amplifier with Shaper	p. 261
Voltage Buffer with Shaper	p. 269
Voltage Pulse Processing Circuits	p. 271
Energy Discrimination Methods	p. 272
Information Readout	p. 272
References	p. 273
Single-Photon Detectors for Time-of-Flight Range Imaging	p. 275
Introduction	p. 275
Time-of-Flight Measuring Techniques and Systems	p. 278
Time-of-flight System	p. 278
Direct and Indirect Time Measuring Techniques	p. 279
Optical Power Budget	p. 281
D-TOF and I-TOF Noise Considerations	p. 284
Single-Photon Sensors for 3D-TOF Imaging	p. 286
Single-photon Detectors	p. 286
Pixel Architectures for Single-photon TOF Imaging	p. 288
Circuit Implementations for I-TOF Pixels	p. 289
Circuit Implementations for D-TOF Pixels	p. 291
State-of-the-art Time-resolved CMOS SPAD Pixel-array	p. 293
Challenges and Future Perspectives	p. 294
Conclusions	p. 297
References	p. 298
Single-Photon Imaging for Astronomy and Aerospace Applications	p. 301
Introduction	p. 301
Scientific Detectors in Astronomy and Space Applications	p. 303
Scientific CCDs	p. 303
Imaging Through the Atmosphere	p. 309
Lucky Imaging Technique	p. 311
Adaptive Optics	p. 313
Principles	p. 313
Wavefront Sensor Requirements and Detector Implementations	p. 315
Infrared Detectors for Wavefront Sensor	p. 319
Space LIDAR Applications	p. 321
Concluding Remarks	p. 324
References	p. 325
Exploiting Molecular Biology by Time-Resolved Fluorescence Imaging	p. 329
Introduction: Time-Resolved Fluorescence as a Uniquely Sensitive Detection Method for the Analysis of Molecular Biology	p. 329
Labeling of Specific Molecules by a Long- Lifetime Fluorophore	p. 330
Integration of the Investigated Specimens in a Planar Array: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Assays	p. 331
Excitation of Multiple Specimens in the Array by Intense Light Pulses and Imaging of the Arrayed Specimens on an Image Sensor conceived for Time-Gated Readout of the Fluorescence Signal	p. 332
Microarray Assays	p. 333
Properties of the Ideal Fluorophore for Ultra-Sensitive Fluorescence Detection	p. 334
Ruthenium Complexes	p. 336
Applications in the Life Sciences	p. 338
Assay for Drug Discovery	p. 338
Assay for Point of Care Testing	p. 341
Prospective Use of Ultra-Low-Noise CMOS Image Sensors for Time-Resolved Fluorescence Imaging	p. 342
References	p. 344
Index	p. 345
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